Expanded Polystyrene
(EPS)
Learn the Facts
What is EPS?
Often called “Styrofoam” (which is actually a trademarked name for a Dow Chemical Company foam product), the more accurate name for the generic white foam in disposable cups, plates, clamshell containers, and packing peanuts is expanded polystyrene or EPS.
The lightweight, inexpensive material is often used for packaging, and its insulating qualities make it a popular container for food & beverages.²
How is it made?
The EPS foam manufacturing process begins with benzene, a known carcinogen derived from non-renewable fossil fuels. A chemical reaction converts benzene to styrene—another hazardous chemical, which has known neurological effects and is a suspected carcinogen in humans. Styrene monomers are chemically linked to form polystyrene (PS) chains, which are treated with a blowing agent, such as pentane gas, to create a polystyrene foam.¹
- At higher temperatures, chemicals can leach from EPS products, potentially contaminating the container’s contents. For example: foam cups with hot coffee, clamshells containing freshly made hot food, items reheated in these containers, etc.¹’³
EPS by the numbers
The numbers on EPS are staggering. Each year, the U.S. produces 3 million tons of plastic foam, and the production process is intense and polluting: for example, 680 pounds of greenhouse gas is emitted to produce just 10,000 foam cups.³
After production, plastic foam is made into millions of single-use products, which are disposed of in landfills or littered across the environment. A 2015 report estimated that 25 billion plastic foam cups are thrown away each year, which is enough to circle the earth 436 times!³ Today, approximately 80% of EPS ends up in landfills and 20% in waterways. In fact, EPS foam represents an estimated 30% of the trash volume in the U.S.’s nearly 2,000 landfills.¹ The 20% of EPS that ends up as litter on land and eventually in waterways presents a significant environmental hazard to wildlife and is costly and labor-intensive to clean up. Less than 1% of EPS is recycled, due to the high cost to recycle the material, a lack of recycling facilities equipped to recycle it, and a low resale value of recycled EPS material.¹’³
Although the material itself is inexpensive, the ultimate costs of expanded polystyrene are far from cheap. As the Surfrider Foundation explains, “the continued use of [EPS] damages our environment and our health and contributes to climate change. One 2016 study estimated the hidden costs of EPS are $7 billion a year. A recent poll of several states showed bipartisan support of styrofoam bans, with 60% supporting a ban on EPS and 76% in favor of legislation to reduce plastic pollution.² Clean Virginia Waterways of Longwood University found that support for EPS food & beverage container bans in Virginia is strong, at 63%.⁵
The Hard (Crumbly, and Non-Biodegradable) Truth
EPS as Litter
Due to its lightweight and buoyant composition, EPS is the “perfect pollutant.” It easily blows and floats into the environment, physically breaking into smaller and smaller pieces. EPS foam “disintegrates over time in water without actually degrading, creating thousands of microplastics that spread throughout the oceans, endangering wildlife for thousands of years.”⁴
These crumbs and microplastics are difficult to cleanup, and wreak havoc on habitats. Chemicals may leach into soils and water, and small pieces are easily ingested by wildlife. Research suggests it may take 500 to potentially thousands of years for EPS to truly biodegrade.²’³’⁴
In Fairfax County, Virginia (graph to right), single-use EPS foam items made up a combined 6.64% of the top 15 items collected at community litter cleanups in a 16-month span. This may not sound like a lot, but that totals to 973 items, which are polluting streams and habitats.
Health Risks
EPS poses numerous risks to human health at every stage of its life cycle: from origin, throughout manufacturing and treatment processes, in its use applications, and disposal.
Origin:
The EPS foam manufacturing process begins with benzene, a natural derivative of petroleum and a known human carcinogen.
Manufacturing and Treatment:
Nearly every product in the multi-step chemical conversion of benzene to the EPS end-product has harmful properties. Styrene (converted from benzene) is a known human neurotoxin, and researchers suspect it also possesses cancer-causing qualities. The polymer form of styrene, polystyrene, possesses similar characteristics. Lastly, pentane gas, the blowing agent used to treat polystyrene and create the distinctive foam cell texture, is a volatile organic compound (VOC) which may contribute to climate change and is also acutely toxic to humans.
Use and Disposal:
According to Green Dining Alliance, styrene is “likely to leach when it comes in contact with fatty foods, hot beverages, and especially alcohol,” items which are often packaged in such containers (e.g., takeout, hot coffee, etc.).¹’³
Additionally, because EPS foam does not naturally biodegrade, the consequences of its disposal in a landfill include it sitting for centuries, slowly photo-degrading into smaller pieces, potentially leaching chemicals into the land or air.
Finally, littered EPS pieces can break down into seemingly infinite crumbles, which can be ingested by animals or humans. As EPS degrades (though again, not biodegrading) in the ocean, it releases “toxic micro pieces…potentially contaminating the marine food chain, and ultimately, the human diet.” ⁷
What Can We Do?
As a restaurant or business…
You can opt to reduce & eliminate EPS foam from operations. Data suggests the cost difference between EPS containers and compostable paper alternatives is as low as $0.01 per item.⁶ In fact, for the most common single-use EPS food service items (coffee cups, plates, and takeout containers), prices to switch to alternatives vary by just a few cents.
Contrary to popular belief by those who oppose EPS bans in food service, this data supports a relatively low economic burden on businesses to switch to compostable paper alternatives. The price differences may be even lower with other paper or plastic containers.
As a consumer…
You can be selective about where you take your business, refuse EPS & single-use items, bring your own reusable containers with you, and encourage local businesses to phase out EPS products. Research shows that the economic impact of businesses adopting EPS alternatives on consumer prices is negligible, at generally <1% price increase to items under $10.⁶
As a voter…
You can lobby your elected officials to create policy change to address the EPS crisis. Evidence supports the direct impact of targeted policies on litter reduction. For example, the plastic bag fee in Washington, D.C. has resulted in a dramatic reduction in plastic bag pollution observed in the Potomac Watershed. According to Alice Ferguson Foundation, plastic bag litter has dropped 72% from before versus after the bag fee legislation.⁸ As for the efficacy of EPS bans, the city of San Francisco “experienced a 41 percent decrease in EPS litter over the three years following passage of its ordinance.” ⁶
Further Reading
Resources
- Green Dining Alliance (2016). The Real Cost of Styrofoam. EarthDay365. https://greendiningalliance.org/2016/12/the-real-cost-of-styrofoam/.
- Schotman, L. (2021). It’s Time to Forget the Foam. Surfrider Foundation. https://washington.surfrider.org/ its-time-to-forget-the-foam/.
- Lofgren, K. (2015). The Dangerous Truth About Styrofoam. InHabitat. https://inhabitat.com/infographic-the-dangerous-truth-about-styrofoam/.
- EPE USA (2019). Polystyrene Foam. and Ocean Pollution. EPE Global USA. https://epe.global/2019/11/05/ polystyrene-foam-and-ocean-pollution/.
- McKay, L. and Register, K. (2022). Public Perceptions About Plastic Pollution. http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/images/Survey_VA_Voters_Plastic_Pollution_Report_9-22-22_to_Media.pdf.
- Heverly, S., et al. (2017). Recommendations for Reducing or Banning Foam Food Service Containers. Equinox Project, Center for Sustainable Energy. https://energycenter.org/sites/default/files/Guide_for_Polystyrene_Reduction_Policies.pdf.
- Jackson, L. (2022). Expanded polystyrene is a ‘waste nightmare’ but could non-EPS seafood packaging reduce ocean pollution?. Global Seafood Alliance. https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/expanded-polystyrene-is-a-waste-nightmare-but-could-non-eps-seafood-packaging-reduce-ocean-pollution/.
- Clean Virginia Waterways (2023). Single-use Plastic Bags: Common Litter in Virginia. Clean Virginia Waterways, Longwood University. http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/bags.html.
EPS Foam Legislation & Case Studies
Washington, D.C. Foam Ban
According to the D.C. Department of Energy & Environment (DOEE), the foam ban in Washington, D.C. has had a tremendous impact in its five-year lifespan.
The ban went into effect in 2016, and since then “DOEE partners monitoring trash in the Anacostia River have noted a drop in foam entering the waters. An analysis of data from a trash trap located at Nash Run produced some compelling insights on the Foam Ban’s effect [see graph to right].”
They also note that “96% of inspected businesses are complying with the Foam Ban, having successfully transitioned to non-foam food service ware alternatives.” Read more about the ban’s requirements and success at D.C. DOEE’s website.
Maryland State EPS Food Service Products Ban
The Maryland state legislature passed a law restricting the use of EPS foam products in food service in 2019, which went into effect October 1, 2020. It was the first state to pass a ban on foam in food service containers.
Read more about the legislation on the Maryland.gov website.
Foam-Free Virginia Ban
In 2021, the Virginia General Assembly passed legislation to ban the use of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) by food vendors. According to Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), the “ban applies to any food vendors that serve prepared food, including restaurants, cafeterias, food trucks, catering companies, and grocery store salad bars.” Moreover, the new law also discourages the sale and use of EPS products, promoting the use of EPS alternatives.
Specifically, the ban would mandate a phase out of EPS products for food vendors, restaurants, and similar retail food establishments beginning July 1, 2023, for those businesses with 20 or more locations. The ban would expand to include food vendors of all types beginning July 1, 2025.
However, an amendment passed in a 2022 special session cited budget concerns and delayed the phased ban of polystyrene containers by five years (until July 1, 2028 and July 1, 2030 respectively).
The specific language and details of the EPS ban can be found on the Virginia LIS laws website.
The budget amendment delaying the ban can be found at the Virginia LIS budget website.